Western Civilization Notes

Western Civilization Notes – 7^th to 12^th Weeks

Pages 214 – 219: 20 Feb 2004

The Crisis of the Third Century (180-284CE) – 214

“Five Good Emperors” ended in 180CE with the death of Marcus Aurelius

The first four appointed promising young men, but Aurelius appointed his son

Commodus – very unpopular after ending costly wars and trying to placate the Senate by executing its members

Few talented people wanted to work with him as a result
Strangled by his wrestling coach in 192CE

Provincial General Septimius Severus wins over other armies’ candidates for succession to the throne

The Severan Dynasty (215)

Eliminated Senate’s rights and ruled as military dictators
“Enrich the soldiers, boys, and scorn the rest”
Septimius left power to his son Caracalla who murdered his brother

Makes everyone a Roman citizen to increase taxes to pay bonuses to the army
His mother helps him run the estate until his assassination

Caracalla’s sister has much influence on successor Sererus Alexander
In 235CE the army turned against them and killed the Severan’s; 50 years of endemic civil war ensued

The Height of the 3^rd Century Crisis (216)

Civil war brought the economy to its knees
Pestilence plagued Rome for 15 years
The Germans and Persians broke into the empire

251CE: Goths slew the emperor Decius and crossed the Danube
260CE: Valerian captured by Persians and made to kneel before the Persian king

He died and was put on exhibition
Western Roman states declared independence

Neoplatonism (216) – became very popular (nearly more so than stoicism); many start to turn towards other religions too

Doctrines: 1) Emanationism – all matter is from divine sources but has no quality of its own and is a symbol of evil)

2) Mysticism – attempt to reunite the body with the divine by communicating through contemplation

One should be ashamed of having a body and should seek to subjugate it

3) Asceticism – extreme self-denial; supposed to release the soul from bondage so it could be w/the divine

Founder: Plotinus of Egypt in 204CE (217)

Roman Rule in the West: A Balance Sheet

In 284CE, Rome changed dramatically from its old form

Explaining the “Fall” of Rome (217)

Germanic tribes were able to fell the Romans because internal strife had weakened Rome greatly
Rome’s abuse of the tribes caused them to attack

After the 4^th century, more tribes were interested in joining Rome, not destroying it

Political Failures (217)

Most serious failure was a lack of laws to govern succession

It was difficult to establish a clear line because the emperor was a position that did not officially exist
Violence became an increasingly common way to assume power after an emperor’s death

Economic Crisis (218) … caused by:

Slave system

Produced the agricultural surplus that supported Roman cities
Worked so hard they could not reproduce very much

Slaves replenished through war, but after 117CE there were no wars to speak of

Slave numbers declined and production dropped
Roman landlords refused to use machinery or technological advances to increase production to prior levels

Labor shortages

Many soldiers and farmers were needed to drive the empire
From Aurelius to the next strong emperor in 284CE, population declined by a third due to the plague and war
Resulted in too few farmers to produce food and too few soldiers to fight

The very rich began to give themselves privileges and stopped paying taxes (and sometimes raised armies)

This put too big of a burden on the local elite for taxes
Rome ended “not so much with a bang as with a whimper”

Roman Achievements

It was the largest country ever with the largest percent of the world’s population and survived for the longest time
Maintained a stable economy with no safeguards for four centuries
The key to Roman success was enfranchising those they conquered and allowing even provincials to hold office

Pages 227 – 232: 20 Feb 2004

The Emergence and Triumph of Christianity (227)

Formed primarily by Jesus and St. Paul

The Career of Jesus (227)

Jesus of Nazareth was born in Judea near the beginning of CE
Born just after Judea was conquered; bandits still rebelled in the countryside and many were against Rome there

Led to two revolts (first resulted in the destruction of the Temple, the second caused all Jews to be exiled from Jerusalem)

· The temple was eventually rebuilt and Sadduces (temple leaders and aristocrats) guarded the Torah

· Politics and religion were close

· Pharisees – main rivals of the people who taught and preached religious law

Believed all 613 commandments applied to all Jews (Sadduces believed most applied only to priests)
Preached that the afterlife was characterized by rewards and punishments
Jesus’ teachings developed from this group

Essenes – quasi-monastic group; radical

Believed in spiritual deliverance through asceticism, repentance, and mystical union with God

Jesus – the first record of his life not recorded until Mark, thirty years after his death … he taught:

Fatherhood of God, brotherhood of humanity
Golden Rule (“do unto others as you would have others do unto you”)
Forgiveness and love of enemies
Repayment of evil with good
Shun hypocrisy
Oppose literal ism in Jewish religious law
Imminent approach of God’s kingdom
Resurrection of the dead and existence of Heaven

Jesus expelled merchants and moneychangers from the Jerusalem temple and was tried for blasphemy by the religious leaders who found him guilty

They sent him to Pontius Pilate who condemned him to be crucified
His followers hope was restored when they were told he had been resurrected and they preached his word

The Propagation of Early Christianity (229)

Apostle Paul – huge significance; his work reached many and broadened Christianity to a universal religion
Few Jews converted
Began to attract many in the 3^rd century “age of anxiety”
Christianity gained many more followers than other new religions (Mithraism, Serapis cult)

Thought to be good at ousting demons (important to those who believed the world was filled with demons)
Three views that led to Christianity’s triumph

Salvation – people joined to avoid damnation (nonbelievers “liquefy in fierce fires” for eternity)
Social Dimensions – appealed to women because it offered equal chances of salvation and gave them a role in worship (Mithraism excluded women completely)
Organization – hierarchy of priests to direct the faith

Also offered services to members like nursing, support, and burial

Christianity generally tolerated

Some local magistrates prosecuted small numbers, but the martyrs gave Christianity a boost if anything
Persecution was not an issue until Diocletian but by then Christianity was too big to be wiped out
Galerius realized this an issued an edict of toleration in 311CE

Constantine converted to Christianity in hopes for aid in an upcoming battle after thinking he saw a cross in the night sky

He eventually became emperor and a full Christian
He made Christianity Rome’s religion and was a great patron of it
His children all grew up as Christians and the population began to shift to Christianity

His line of rule continued to build Christianity up (except for Julian “the Apostate” who tried to launch a Pagan revival in his three year reign)
Pagan religions banned by Theodosius

Pages 232 – 237 – 23 Feb 2004

The New Contours of Fourth-Century Christianity

Christianity evolved quite a bit since Galerius

Doctrinal Quarrels (232)

Caused turmoil but better defined the dogma and discipline
Two Factions

Arians – rejected the idea Christ could be equal with God
Athanasian – though Christ and God were made of the same substance and were both fully God

Became the Doctrine of the Trinity, which exists today

Catholicism evolved as a certain set of dogmas was defined

No other early religion was so closely defined

Constantine wanted Christianity to unify his country and was worried at the divisions it caused

Called the Councils of Nicea (325CE) – first general church council

Constantine presided and was Christ’s rep on Earth (title continued by future emperors)

Two major reasons for this: 1) Religious arguments often appealed to emperor; 2) no emperors in the west, and since the emperor could control religion, it became more emperor controlled in the East and more open in the West

Growth of Ecclesiastical Organization (234)

Climaxed with the papacy; arose from the Bishop of Rome who was the most powerful Bishop

More important because Paul was the original Bishop of Rome
After the Roman capital moved to Constantinople, emperors had little influence in the West, including Rome

Made the church more influential and allowed it to help provide some government functions after Rome collapsed

Also helped preserve order

Made the simple faith more complex, however

The Spread of Monasticism (235)

Monks were originally laymen who lived alone and practiced extreme self-denial
Became common in 4^th century because: 1) alternative to martyrdom; 2) avoid the church’s shift to worldly values
Extreme self-denial died down around Saint Basil’s time (330-379CE)

Basil practiced self-denial extremes until he started a moderate style of life and established a communal
His monks were prohibited from prolonged fasts, etc
Urged them to submit to poverty, humility, and hours of silent meditation each day

Saint Benedict (480CE) drafted rules that led to great increases in monasticism

His regs had obligations of poverty, chastity, obedience, labor, and religious devotion
Allowed wine, gave meat to the sick
Abbot’s authority absolute; disobedience à flogging
“Try to be loved rather than feared”
Thought one should keep busy and do manual labor

Led to hard-working monks that gladly did useful manual labor and did valuable farming

Changing Attitudes Toward Women and Marriage (236)

Women given equal opportunity and importance in salvation
In everyday life, men were superior

Women were expected to stay at home
Only men were leaders or priests

Originally priests could be married, but later none could get married after being ordained

Pages 238 – 246: 23 Feb 2004

The Germanic Invasions and the Fall of the Roman Empire in the West

The West held out until Theodosius the Great but thereafter Germanic tribes conquered Western Rome

Germanic-Roman Relations

Before the 4^th century, a steady trade developed with the Germans

Sometimes allied with some tribes while at war with others
Allowed some settling in the empire by Germans
Many Germans converted to Christianity

Germans conquered the western empire to get better land

After Theodosius died, his empire was divided between two less competent emperors (his children)
The German Alaric wandered through their land unimpeded to find good land
He sacked Rome in 410 and conquered Gaul and northern Africa

With the help of the Huns, they deposed the western emperor (476CE)
Eastern emperor stayed in power and claimed power in the west still, however

The Success and Impact of German Invasions (240)

Western Rome

Mostly relied on agriculture; only made landlords able to live in luxury
Little will to defend against Germans who were hardly considered invaders

Often the Germans won by default

Eastern Rome

Trade and industry resulted in more tax money and a more vigorous empire
It could afford to buy off German invaders

Effects of the conquering of the West

Accelerated an the decay of Roman cities which had already become quite advanced
Political unity fractured
Rome still had great influence – Goths wanted to be like Romans, but rarely was the reverse true

The Shaping of Western Christian Thought (242)

The fall of Roman civilization reassured Christians that the world was just a testing place for God

The First Three Great Fathers of the Western Latin Church (242)

St. Jerome ( 340-420CE) – translated the Bible into Latin from Greek and Hebrew; used during the Middle Ages and beyond; the only widely read work of the time – greatly influenced Latin style and thought

Also avidly supported monasticism
Primarily a scholar

St. Ambrose (340-397CE) – active in the world’s concerns

Wrote a book on ethics (On the Duties of Ministers; similar to Cicero’s On Duties) … Major Points:

Human conduct should be out of reverence for God
God helps some humans but not others

Taught St. Augustine

St. Augustine (354-430CE) – greatest of the Latin Fathers; profound influence on Middle Age theology and later Protestantism

Wrote over 100 treatises while Bishop of Hippo, North Africa
His theology revolved around principles of profound sinfulness of humanity and divine omnipotence
God alone chooses who is saved from the beginning (predestination)

All should try good since nobody knows who is chosen

Charity was his most important form of goodness
In his treatise On the City of God he says there are two kinds of societies – those who live for man and love themselves and those who live according to God (the former being damned)
The true wisdom of mortals is piety

Pages 269 – 283 – 25 Feb 2004

The Growth of Islam (269)

Islam (means “submission”) begins with Muhammad in the 7^th century
Islam is worshipped by 1/7 of the world’s population, mostly in Africa, Middle East, South Asia, and former Soviets
Islam requires adherence to certain worship, social, and cultural norms

The Rise of Islam (270)

Born in Arabia
War between Byzantines and Persians shift trade rounds through safer Arabia

Mecca grows much from this
Mecca alreadya large religious base – Kabah (pilgrimage shrine central to many tribes worship)
Shrine controlled by the Quraish tribe who also directed the economic life of Mecca
Muhammad born to this family in Mecca in 570

Orpahned early – served a rich widow for money until he married her
Prosperous trader until 610 when he underwent a relgious experience

Until then most Arabs were polytheists (Allah was their more powerful God)

Muhammad heard Allah was the only god
Became a monotheist and received further messages for the basis of a new religion
Gained few followers; Quraish refuse to convert in fear of loss of importance of the Kabah
Migrated (called “hijrah” in Arabic) in 622 to Yathrib (a town that invited him to come)

This migration marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar
Changed the town’s name to Medina (“city of the Prophet”) and became ruler

Muhammad wants to punish the Quraish and leads his followers to raid their caravans
Quraish submit and Mecca converts in 630

Kabah preserved as main shrine of Islam
Most of Arabia follows Mecca and converts

Muhammad dies in 632

The Relgious Teachings of Islam (271)

Believe “there is no divinity but God”
Muhammad was God’s last prophet
Judgement Day – the pious will be granted eternal life in paradise; the damned sent to eternal fire and torture
Koran – compilation of revelations sent to Muhammad

Dedication to morals, compassion, fidelty; regimen of prayers, fasts, pilgimages to Mecca, and recitation

Islam similar to other two major monotheisms; Muhammad influenced by them
Muhammad accepted the Bible and New Testament as divine too
Accepted Jesus Christ as a prophet, but not as the son of God
Muslims expected to pray together in mosques but there is no “mass” – absence of clergy

The Islamic Conquests (272)

Move to world influence began after Muhammad’s death
After the death there was no clear line of succession

Zealous convert Umar names Abu-Bakr caliph (“deputy of the Prophet”)
Dies soon after but Umar becomes caliph

Arab conquest

636: rout Byzantine army in Syria; occupy Antioch, Damascus, Jerusalem
637: destroy Persian army and take Persian capital city

Conquered all of Persia easily by 651

Captured Egypt in 646 and slowly conquered the rest of North Africa
Captured Spain in 711
Failed only in attempts to capture Constantinople in 677 and 717

Why was conquest so fast?

Not a religious crusade; they did not want converts

Muslims could pay taxes in goods; others had to pay in cash
Muslims were also the ones allowed to rule and collect taxes

However, the caliph’s religious position made his followers motivated to follow his orders to fight
Many welcomed Islamic conquerers

Conversion not necessary
Taxes far less oppressive than Persians, Byzantines, and others

The Shiite-Sunni Schism (275)

Umar diead and was replaced by a weak caliph, Uthman
Murdered by supporters of another Muslim with strong leadership qualities, Ali

Uthman’s family murders Ali
Ali’s family become Shiites, a religious minority who only believe Ali’s descendents could be caliphs
Sunnites (sunna is “religious custom”) – committed to actual historical development

Shiites often persecuted throughout history and became militant and feel like “preservers of the faith”

Ruled in modern Iran and Iraq but comprise only 10% of Muslims worldwide

Umayyads and Abbasids (275)

Umayyads caliphates – focussed on the west (Mediterranean, Constantinople)

Seriously weakened after a failed attack on the Byzantine capital in 717
Continued in Spain after Abbasids took over in the east

Lavishly spent on culture: eastern hairstyle, deodorant, and a Persian musician, astronomer, geographer, etc

Abbasids – (succeeded Umayyads); focussed on the east

Built capital in Baghdad
Ruthlessly killed their enemies and created elaborate court ceremonies
Described in Arabian Nights (written during the rule of Harun al-Rashid from 786 to 809)

Al-Hakem II of Cordoba (961-976) – amassed a library of over 400,000 books

At the time, 100 books made a place a “center of learning”

Abbasids were less hostile and did not threaten Byzantine

Byzantine learned from Muslim cultural achievements and recovered
Abbasids hostile towards the Umayyads that ruled Spain
Harun al-Rashid sent an elephant to Charlemagne (very symbolic)

The Changing Islamic World (277)

Abbasid power declined quickly in the 9^th and 10^th century … due to:

Gradual impoverishment of the economic base

Ecological crises and African slave revolt

Declining tax revenues
Expensive rebuilding of the capital Baghdad
Mercenary armies replaced with slave armies due to lack of money; these armies controlled caliphs

Two fundamental results

Growth of regionalism
Increasing relgious hostilities between Shiites and Sunnis

Some Shiites seize North Africa and Egypt
Other Shiites attacked Baghdad and Mecca and seized the Kabah (930)

Caused Abbasid power to completely collapse
Caliph stayed until 1258 when Mongols deposed them, but was essentially powerless

Umayyad power in Spain declines

Political failures (succession disputes) – incompetent, extravagent rulers
Pagans forced to convert to Islam (only Christians and Jews allowed to maintain their beliefs)
Caliph dissolved and land split between petty kingdoms
Christian kingdoms invade

King Alfonso of Leon captures Toledo in 1085

North African Muslims invade and check the advance
Fail to reunite Spain though

Christian invaders recapture Spain essentially by the 13^th century

Granada holds out until 1492

Muslim Society and Culture, 900 – 1250 (278)

Islamic rule spreads to Turkey and India
Muslim culture highly cosmopolitan because:

1) Inherited sophistication of Persia and Byzantine

2) Centered at the crossroads of trade between the Far East and West

3) Prosperous town life counterbalanced agriculture

Importance of trade helped Islam spread
Islam has social mobility because it stresses the equality of all Muslims
Office was not inherited
Literary very high – 20% could read
Egalitarianism – treatment of women

Men could have up to four wives and often servants and concubines kept
Guarded by castrated males (eunuchs)

Male homosexuals tolerated among the upperclass
Islamic religious life – two paths:

Ulama – learned men who studied and offered advice on religion and religious law
Sufis – mystics; stress contemplation and ecstasy; like monks except they practiced celibacy (often in public)

No common thread; very different approaches to being a Sufi

“whirling dervishes” to the West (dancers)
faqirs – snake charming
quiet, meditative men who were not exotic

Organized into brotherhoods

Muslim Philosophy, Science, and Medicine (279)

Faylasufs – Islamic philsophers

Study of Greek thought; most notably of Aristotle and Plato
Major problem: Greek thought said the soul’s life was finite and the world was eternal

Al-Farabi (d.950) – one may philosophize without being distracted by the masses’ religious beliefs
Avicenna (d. 1037) – taught less rationalisitc philosophy; similar to mysticism
Averroes (d. 1198) – extreme rationalist; after him rationalism faded away

Up until 1200, Muslim philosophy was more advanced than any other Western culture
Also studied natural science to make a living

Astronomy – created advanced theories about how the Earth moved; advanced observations and predictions exceeded the Greeks
Medicine – learned of contagion in several diseases and that food and water could spread it; created medical writings

Rhazes (d. 925) was the greatest physician of the Medieval world – discovered the difference between measles and smallpox
Other found value of cauterization and styptic agents, diagnosed stomach cancer, made poison antidotes, etc
Organized hospitals – had wards for certain cases, dispensary for meds, and library

Also made advances in optics, chemistry, and math

Literature and Art (280)

Unrestricted poetry written and performed in court
Art inspired by Byzantine and Persia

Little human art (discouraged by Islam)
Architecture the most important Islamic art (domes, arches, etc)
Minor arts of carpets, rugs, and tapestries

Trade and Industry (282)

Shipping established new routes across the Indian ocean

Dominated the Med for some time too

Learned to make paper from the Chinese

Contributions of Early Islamic Civilizations (283)

Irrigation techniques, new crops, paper, alcohol distillation
Preserved and expanded Greek philosophy and scientific knowledge
Arabic numerals, adopted from India

Feb 27 (247-255, 283-298)

The Christianization of Classical Culture in the West (247)

The philosophy of pagans was very appealing to Christians still and even Saints had to fight to leave it alone
Philosophy of Christianity replaces pagan philosophy by two processes

1) Gradually winnowing out classical texts

2) Understanding the purpose of classical culture – what does Athens have to do with Jerusalem? Nothing

Cassiodorus and the Benedictine Tradition of Learning (248)

Came from Cassiodorus who wrote a History of the Goths for his overlord barbarian
He worked with religion later and wrote his most influential book Institutes

It said that the study of classical literature was essential to understanding the Bible and the church’s fathers
Led to a practice where monks would first copy classical, pagan works before moving on to a more demanding study of theology

Cassiodorus encouraged copying as it was “manual labor” like St. Benedict demanded but was more suitable than field labor
As a result, Benedictine monasteries became the most important centers of preservation and study of classical knowledge

Cassiodorus and Boethius worked hard to try to preserve Roman society and culture
Theodoric aided commerce, repaired public works, advocated religious tolerance, etc

Could not prevent the unraveling of Roman society mainly because the Romans believed the Arians heretics
Boethius accused of conspiracy and imprisoned and killed

Eastern Rome and the Western Empire (250)

Boethius was the last noteworthy layman philosopher and writer in the West for hundreds of years (after him only monks and priests wrote)

Justinian’s Revival of the Roman Empire (250)

Roman Justinian reconquers Italy but ultimately he cannot reconquer all of the West as he desires
Justinian speaks Latin, but most of the East now speaks Syriac or Greek

The Codification of Roman Law (250)

One of Justinian’s most impressive accomplishments
The Code was revised to fix obsolete elements and bring it into harmony with new conditions
The Code was a revised version of all the laws since Hadrian … Supplements:

Novels – legislation of Justinian and his successors
Digest – summary of writings by great jurists
Institutes – textbook of legal principles

These four things are called the Corpus Juris Civilis or “body of civil law”
Corpus had huge influences on later governments

Basis of all law in European states excluding England

Justinian’s Military Conquests (252)

His brilliant general Belisarius conquers the Vandals in Northwest Africa and Italy

Left most of Italy in shambles

Gains did not last as Persia menaced Constantinople

The threat was barely staved off, but forces had to be moved away from the West to support the East
Primitive German tribes conquered part of Italy
Papal states became the authority in other parts of Italy
Southern Italy remained in East Rome’s hands

These divisions lasted until the 19^th century
This and Africa lost to Muslims in a few generations due to religious dissension and heavy taxes

Western Christian Civilization in the Early Middle Ages (283)

People perceptions changed from living in the Roman Empire under various emperors to wanting to restore the empire

Economic Disintegration and Political Instability (284)

Kings and nobles moved to the countryside and made their estates self-sustained
Agriculture declined as land remained uncultivated because the maintenance of many slaves became too hard
Franks and Goths claimed exemption from land taxes
Monetary system of gold broke down (gold too valuable to be spent in market)

Silver becomes the dominant form of currency for 1,000 years
During the 7^th century Europe became a two tier economy – gold, silver, and luxury goods among the rich

Barter and currency substitutes among the peasantry
Lords collected rents in foodstuffs which were hard to do much with

Limited Lords ability to maintain a military
Had to get fine goods (weapons, jewelry, silks) through artisans or plundering

Lords tried to solve the problems by establishing emporia (merchants gathered here during certain seasons to exchange goods; brought wealth to the lord and safety to the traders)

Wars constantly fought, usually for plundering

Successful rulers lived near poorly defended but rich countries
Caused instability because a few defeats could completely reverse all gains

Succession to power also caused instability

Hereditary power was problematic because the child was usually not as charismatic

Franks the only ones who could set up a dynasty (done by Clovis) that lasted of 250 years

Still violent because Gaul was often split into regions each governed by a king

Romans horrified by the succession problems and termed them morbus Gothorum (sickness of the Goths)

Monasticism and Conversion (286)

Clovis dynasty called Merovingian after Clovis’ grandfather (who was thought to be a sea dragon)
Merovingian government had many aspects of Roman administration

Literacy important
Cultural renaissance associated with Charlemagne began with Merovingian monasteries

Monasteries grew a lot under Merovingian due to wealth (which had shifted from south Gaul to the north)

Due to the successful effort (finally) to cultivate northern France; done by heavy plows

The Spread of Monasticism (286)

Convents became more prevalent
Women like them because it gives them a degree of power of their lives and protects them from rape, etc
Men like them because it controls potentially powerful women, limits reproductions and thereby potential heirs
Missionary role expanded

Most significant achievement is converting England’s Anglo-Saxons

The Reign of Pope Gregory I (287)

Fourth great Latin father of the church
Emphasis on penance for forgiveness of sins and the existence of purgatory where souls were purified before entering heaven
These changes affected the West and led to differences of religion in the East and West
Expert statesman – good diplomat and manager of papacy’s estates and revenues
Encouraged the spread of Benedictine monks

The Rise of the Carolingians (288)

Series of civil wars arose in Gaul among the kinds of parts of the country
Charles Martel (“the Hammer”) wins and from then on Merovingian kings are largely figureheads ruled by Martel

2^nd founder of the Frankish state
Turned back a Muslim force from Spain in 733/734 in Tours
Aided English Benedictines in the conversion of Frisia and central Germany

In return, the papacy helped him reform (control) the Frankish church

After Charles’ death a new Merovingian king is put on the throne but withdraws to a monastery

Pepin, son of Charles, claims the throne and gets legitimacy from the papacy
Papacy is fighting in Italy against Lombard kings in hopes a strong Frankish ruler will help
Papal emissary Saint Boniface crowns Pepin as king

In 756 Pepin’s pays his debt by launching a military expedition against Lombards

It went badly and he returned to Gaul to try and focus on his own country

The Reign of Charlemagne (289)

Gaul was about to split into three countries
He led military conquests and annexed the Lombards and tookover Saxony too
This gave his dynasty divine legitimacy and healed his country
Riches poured in and he appointed counts ( “followers”) to oversee different regions as well as tax collectors, etc
Created a new monetary system (1 silver = 240 pennies)

Lasted until the French Revolution in France and until 1970s in Britain

He traveled around his country to check up on his counts and people

A fair amount of abuse, but it was the best system in Europe since the Romans

Christianity and Kingship (291)

King seen as a ruler who was bound to enforce religion as well as politics
King supposed to help lead his people to salvation
Charlemagne deposed and appointed Bishops, changed liturgy, etc

The Carolingian Renaissance (292)

Brought together scholars to promote learning and wisdom
Much poetry was produced
Versions of the Bible were compared and one new version written

New handwriting developed

Simplified letters
Spaces between words

Charlemagne and the Revival of the Western Roman Empire (292)

Crowned the Holy Roman Emperor on Christmas in 800 by Pope Leo III

Popes later cite this as their authority over emperors (Leo very much under Charlemagne, however)

The title an insult to Byzantines who still claimed the west vaguely as a territory
This title survives until the 19^th century when Napoleon retires it

The Collapse of the Carolingian Empire (294)

On Charlemagne’s death, Louis the Pious given the throne (his only living son)
Louis died and divided the empire between his three sons

Charles the Bald (Western France)
Louis the German (Eastern France, later Germany)
Lothair (the Middle Kingdom; also given the imperial title)

On Lothair’s death the East and West fought for the land (mostly for the title though)
This conflict made France and Germany bitter with each other until the end of World War II

Civil War split the empire and created a political map that would lead to modern day Europe

The Legacy of the Carolingians (294)

King Alfred the Great (871 – 899)

United England; modeled Carolingian examples
Country’s prosperity came from wool trade
10^th century England had a very effective government with a centralized monetary and judicial system
Germany’s power rested not on trade but plunder

King Otto I of Germany defeated the pagan Hungarians in 955 using Charlemagne’s sacred lance

Made him the dominant central European power
Pope John XII crowned him and used him to help quell squabbles
Otto deposed the Pope and appointed a new one
Otto had to stay in Italy to control the pope

This distanced himself from his nobility
His grandson passed authority to the Salians dynasty who tried to reassert control over Saxony and ignited a civil war (Henry IV)

In 1066 England fell to the Normans

At the time 10% of English lived in towns; more urbanized than anywhere else in 11^th century Europe

New French dynasty arises after successfully defending Paris from Vikings

The Capetian dynasty took a century to reverse trends that destroyed earlier generations

Conclusion (298)

By 1000, Europe was still far less powerful than Islam or Byzantium rulers

Europe still depended on imports from those countries as well

Urbanization increasing and long distance trade begins to grow
Western Europe expanded to Poland and all new rulers soon were Christians
Europe had become mobilized for war in a way neither Byzantum or Islam could match

In later centuries this would prove decisive in the shifting balance of power towards Christian Europe

Mar 01 (301-308)

The Expansion of Europe: Economy, Society, and Politics in the High Middle Ages, 1000-1300 (301)

In this period of time the balance of power shifted profoundly from Islam and Byzantium to Western Europe
Economy grew rapidly and per capina income increased
Populations grew and luxuries became affordable for some
Western Europe dominated long trade routes and the Mediterranean Sea
Living standards began to fall by 1300 and the plague set society back in the 13^th century, but the dominance gained by Western Europe in these years shaped the power of the modern era

The First Agricultural Revolution (302)

Productivity greatly increased by improved climate and new investment in tools, livestock, and mills
Allowed Europe’s population to triple and to begin massive investments in ships, books, armies, and the arts

Technological Advances (302)

Iron-tipped plow dragged by oxen tilled much deeper than the scratch plow

Excellent drainage and airing and saved labor to allow more frequent plowing and better weed control
New collars improved oxen efficiency

Also allowed for horses to be used
Horses more prone to disease and less powerful and not edible so still less used
Horse use picks up after the iron horseshoe in 900 (greatly improved efficiency) and tandem harnessing (1050; allows horses to pull one behind another)

Iron tools became more common and were much more effective than wood tools

Allowed women to work in the fields too

Wheelbarrow and harrow (mixes tilled earth and seed behind a plow) are invented
Water Mills – process food; much more efficient … Windmills also became common after 1170 in flat lands

Only source of mechanical power until the 19^th century steam engine

Most of these inventions had been around for some time (Carolingian era) but took until now to be widely implemented
Driving Force of the economy: 1) rapidly increasing population and 2) increasing efficient market for goods

Manorialism, Serfdom, and Agricultural Productivity (305)

Peasants consolidated and farmed one large land

Allowed for a single plow and fewer oxen
Increased productivity and ability to experiment as a result
Allowed for churches, etc to be built

Lords facilitated consolidation in the form of Manors and benefited most from it

Took large portions of crops for their own use
Many peasants made serfs; couldn’t leave the land or Lord without permission and often worked without pay

Worked without pay often
Had to pay fines for marrying, etc
Subject to Lord’s manorial court

New Crop Rotation Systems (306)

Crops had been planted in half of a field at a time so the other half could recover
A system where the fields were divided into thirds was devised … big advantages:

Allowed multiple crops which provided insurance against natural disasters
Increased cultivation from 50 to 67%
Spread labor more evenly over the year which allowed for more attention to be paid to weeds, etc
The resting third could be planted with legumes or fodder to restore the soil better

Slowly adopted on manors as unpaid workers cared little for productivity
Most commonly adopted on medium sized lands worked by free peasants

Serfdom and the Limits of Manorialism (307)

Classic manorialism practiced largely in England and a little in France and Germany
Lords began to have serfs pay rent in cash instead of as a percentage of the crops

Removed the risk of having to try to sell the crops
Sometimes inflation caused their money’s real value to drop greatly

Transformations of the First Agricultural Revolution (307)

Allowed manors and even large areas to begin to specialize only in what their land best produced
Other crops needed to live could be traded for
Agriculture benefited from resulting efficiencies of scale