David Underhill – NE203 Ethics Notes (1^st Half):_23 Aug 04 - 11 Oct 04 (1^st - 8^th Weeks)

David Underhill – 30 Aug 04 (1^st Week) – p.3-7, 9-11, 13-19 (EMP); p13-16 (CS)

Ethics and the Military in America (3)

Purpose of ethics course is to develop one’s ability to make ethical decisions and explain those decisions
US officers get their basic values from the nation’s documents (Constitution)

It can be difficult to interpret – there have been many Supreme Court rulings on it

The Frustrations of Ethics (3)

There is no single formula to clearly find the right ethical answer to any ethical question
A short course on ethics would not do justice to the rich moral heritage and profound concepts behind it

What Might We Gain From the Study of Ethics? (4)

New members of the armed forces have to learn that loyalty to the truth over shipmates, etc. is required
All members must understand that the US fights wars ethically – not victory by any means

This makes war more difficult, more costly

The Role of Philosophy in Morality (5)

Only through serious reflection can we improve our understanding of ethics

On the Eve of Battle (George R. Lucas) (9)

About Capt. Erskine, USMC in Kuwait awaiting for orders to invade Iraq (2003)

Wondered why the US didn’t get involved in Sierra Leone, Congo, etc.
Despite his beliefs, he was proud to serve the Marines and lead his men into Iraq
He was inspired by a Brit LtCol who reminded his men that they were there to liberate

Erskine was KIA, becoming one of the first casualties in the war (caught crossfire)

The Ring of Gyges (Plato) (13)

Asks why even bother to have morals
To do wrong is naturally good, to be wrong is naturally bad; suffering far exceeds the good

As a result, men make laws so they don’t inflict injury upon each other

Every organism naturally desires gain and pursues it

Both just and unjust men have this desire
Just men will follow laws in place, however, which check this desire

Every man believes that committing injustices serves themselves better than being just

Why is Ethics so Hard? (Grassey, Stockdale) (15)

The Perspective of the Individual (15)

In most situations, we easily identify right from wrong and hardly think about it
Moral Complexity – life does not always offer a clear choice; there will be pros and cons to both sides
Ethics made hard from:

Morality changes
Pressure from time and the limits of knowledge
Greatest difficulties arise when we have to discern human motivations

Emotions can influence self-control

A moral individual may make an immoral or poor decision due to emotions; they may even realize it is the worse decision but go ahead with it because of strong emotions

Perspectives on Organizations (16)

Ethics is not just about the individual
The organizations what really matters – each person within should fall under its morals
To rise in rank, one must master the culture of the service, including its ethics
Personal and professional ethics are different and separate

Some Thoughts on Theory (18)

Two extremes of ethics

Low: they specify the minimum level of performance
High: they specify the ideal

Three approaches to making ethical decisions

Absolute rules – written in law, clear; Ex: POWs should not be tortured
Consequences of actions and what one should do to achieve the best results
What is the intent of the person?

Ethics is described as the high country of the mind by Robert Pirsig

You must consider hard questions because our beliefs depend on our answers

The Bottom Line (19)

We are bound to uphold our profession’s ethical code
Bottom line: we may have to sacrifice ourselves in service
We cannot rely on ourselves to judge our judgment

We have the responsibility to get external assistance to improve our moral deliberations

Being an officer requires strict adherence to the military ethic

Rescuing the Boat People (CAPT Rick Rubel) (13)

A US LPD comes upon a boat of refugees
The captain stops the LPD near them
The refugees try to swim to the LPD but the captain refuses to let them aboard
The captain has the XO check the boat and OPS tell him the rules for embarking refugees
The boat appears seaworthy, though they say they’d lost 20 men already
The LPD is on a mission and embarking refugees could be dangerous
With twenty dead already, it seems they must be having some serious problems

David Underhill – 2^nd Week – Constitutional Ethics

Monday 30 Aug 2004 – P.63-80

The US Constitution and the Moral Foundations of Military Service: Conflicts of Principles and Loyalties (63)

Warrior Code of Conduct

Non-combatants are immune
Treat POWs with restraint
Use deadly force only when justified

Countries are viewed as having the right to run themselves as they see fit
US Officer Commission Oath

Commit loyalty to the Constitution – the framework for universal moral principles is contained within it

Protect interests with even-handed impartiality

Commitment to sacrifice

Self for shipmate, shipmates for ship, ship for the mission

Even minor disobedience of reasonable orders shows a profound betrayal of trust

Either obey or resign

Natural Law vs. State Law

Even well-intentioned democratic gov can be guilty of moral error
Disobedience is a last resort – other paths to remedy the problem must be attempted

The Moral Foundations of Military Service – Martin Cook (65)

Ethics of Military Service

Clausewitz – the real purpose of the military is to serve the national interest … if so then:

Rhetoric about military virtues is a screen to hide the fact that the military only serves national interests
Only absolute pacifists deny the right to self-defense (resist border incursion, protect lives)

Self-defense often stretched to encompass vague ideas

States Importance

States with boundaries and political heads not like today’s until the Reformation
After the 30 Years War, the Peace of Westphalia was established to prevent religion from causing further war

Emphasized war was for defense of territory and political

Sovereign states analogous to a free individual, able to pursue the life and beliefs of their choosing, free from interference from others
Role of the military is to defend a political and social order from threats

Officer must serve with integrity and professionalism

Not their responsibility to assess the state’s or war’s moral worth

Killing for One’s Country

One must serve the state as it is, not as a fantasy state that does no wrong
Just and Unjust Wars, Walzer: One serves the state to protect the common lives shared by citizens

The sacrifice required by common life must be willingly accepted to have moral justification

GEN Eisenhower’s Attitude: refusing to meet with the German GEN because he believed that professional soldier was not on the same moral level as he was

Suggests a new thinking about warfare
Kuwait was a good example of the Westphalian paradigm, but it is tainted because of oil
Kosovo was legit but the protest was that Kosovo was not of the nation’s interest

If this is why we stayed out, then claims to moral justifications are false and the war is just politics

Reasons to serve

Westphalian answer (defense of common life)
Universalizing answering terms of transcendent moral and political values

Ethics in Military Service (71)

Growing gap exists between military and civilians

Could lead to the military believing itself morally superior to civilian culture
Could also cause a loss of mutual trust and respect

People are drawn to the military for benefits (education, training, travel)
People stay in the military because they see an ideal human community grounded in service to others

Constitutional Ethics – Col Paul E. Roush (Ret.) (75)

Initial fear of a standing army caused its control to be distributed between branches
Placing power in the hands of a small minority was seen as inviting tyranny
Presidential Constraints – Commander-In-Chief, so he has authority over all military commanders
Congressional Constraints – Power of the purse; regulates the armed forces – UCMJ, admin stuff ($, retirement, etc)
Judicial Constraints – few cases; usually give wide latitude
Supreme Law of the Land

Military cannot ignore Congress
Agreements the US makes are binding on its military too (Geneva, etc)

Constitutional Paradigm – four principles guide its practical application

1. Priority of loyalties: Constitution, Mission, Service, Ship, Shipmate, Self

2. Resolve conflicting loyalties then act

3. Follow the above principles or resign

4. If the act is believed to be a greater evil than disobeying the above, then disobeying an order to attain a higher good can be a worthwhile risk, though it may result in severe consequences … prerequisites for this:

Fundamental violation of justice; non-trivial
Attempt to remedy the problem before choosing disobedience
Don’t hide disobedience – make it public, and warn superiors in advance
Must be willing to accept full legal consequences

We are taught to disobey orders so that we can be autonomous agents
Applies to things that will haunt you – NOT trivial

P.47 – 64, 81 – 90 (Wednesday 01 SEPT 2004)

A Higher Moral Standard for the Military – LtCol J. Carl Ficarrotta, USAF (47)

Military believed to be bound by a higher moral standard

Higher Moral Standard (47)

Unique moral obligations for military professionals
Military has good reasons for being bound more strictly to moral standards
Officers have so much authority that they should be very concerned for the welfare of those who they affect
Moral requirements due to the unique situations and contexts encountered by military professionals

Does not indicate how one will act outside a military context

Combat is high stress and stress can wear away at morals

Important to be morally steadfast

The Functional Line (50)

Hackett claims a bad person cannot be a good soldier
Each member of a unit must be honest with each other
As applies to the military

Few understand the level and intensity of cooperation required
Many functions facilitated by clear moral standards
Failure can result in bad consequences

Functional line does not establish that the military professional has special reasons to be good

Service is unphased if soldier puts himself after service, but gives nothing to charity
Should be disappointed of situations like these
No functional reason to be strict outside the military context, however

Functional reasons for being strict in other contexts

Moral failure outside the military can hint at potential for failure in the military (cheating on taxes, etc)

Appearance of morality is functional

Gains support and funding from the public
A degree of trust is needed because appearances can be deceiving

Superior’s behavior affects subordinates – must “set the tone”

Demands of the Role (53)

Moral requirements may extend beyond what is functionally required
Obligations are different from others (like a policeman must step in to stop a crime while a normal citizen does not)
Cheating on taxes, neglecting your children, etc. are expected of everyone, not just those in a military role
Bound because the public expects a higher standard and military professionals agree to that when joining

Have to be careful because public sentiment could disappear
Or worse, it could change to something immoral, in which case morality must be pursued and public sentiment ignored (Nazi Germany)

Group Image (55) - Lack of morals in one hurts the whole group

Moral Standards and Military Leadership – Leon A. Edney, ADM USN (Ret.) and Henry Chiles, Jr. ADM USN (Ret.) (59)

A number of people in public and the military both fail ethically

It is important to maintain our own high standards
Hold those who fail accountable

US must hold a high standard to convince allies to remain such
A breach of ethics is a failure of leadership
Dual standards are not acceptable
Stephen Carter’s three requirements for ethical actions on integrity issues

Discern what is right and wrong based on the facts
Act to correct wrongs
Openly justify your actions

Main Ideas

Learn from past mistakes
Confidence in leadership affects military readiness and ability to accomplish the mission
Actions speak louder than words
Know what you stand for
Loyalty is important to both your superiors and your subordinates

Letter from Birmingham City Jail – Dr Martin Luther King Jr. (81)

Injustice is a threat to justice everywhere
Nonviolent campaign steps (4)

Collect facts to determine injustices
Negotiate
Self-purification
Direct Action – seeks to dramatize the issue so it cannot be ignored

Justice too long delayed is justice denied
Two types of laws: just and unjust

Unjust law – out of harmony with moral law

an unjust law is no law at all

Just law – man-made code that doesn’t infringe on moral law

Morals means must be used to attain moral ends

Friday: 03 SEPT 04 – p.25-28, 39-44 (CSME)

USS Vincennes – Friend or Foe – Ed. By Capt Rick Rubel (25)

USS Vincennes

Capt Rogers eagerly engaged the small gunboats
When the incoming target was flagged as potentially hostile, nobody double-checked the petty officer to ensure he had checked the scheduled flights correctly
The petty officer’s reports were not caught as incorrect by anyone in CIC
Based on the information the captain had, the shot he took was appropriate

Acting on Conscience: Captain Lawrence Rockwood in Haiti – Written by Dr. Stephen Wrage (39)

Capt Lawrence had intel about severe abuse in Haitian prisons
He confronted his chain of command and appropriate officers without success
He continued up the chain of the command, not giving up
His efforts eventually resulted in special forces entering a prison, and they confirmed the horrible conditions (skin peeling off, concentration camp like starvation, etc.)

David Underhill – 3^rd Week – Taking an Ethical Stand: Relativism

Monday: 08 Sept 04 – p.25-42 (EMP)

The Relativity of Moral Beliefs and Situations (25)

Oath does not define what action to take in every case; merely rules out some options
Leaders are decision makers
Moral Relativism – morals are dependent upon their acceptance by others

No one is privileged enough to determine what is right or wrong
Each person must decide what he believes; “When in Rome, do as Romans do”

We are responsible for our beliefs so before acting we should make sure we are morally justified (not just accepted by the current culture surrounding us)
Military officers should be morally sound

To provide society a good example
Because it cultivates good leaders

Relativism and Objectivism: Are there Universal Values? (Barton Porter) (39)

Relativist – values reflect our culture only

Support this by pointing out that various cultures with different and changing beliefs all believe they are right
Admirable because it is 1) tolerant of other views; 2) allows freedom to determine own views; 3) uncertainty about what values need to be defended

Objectivist – acts can be defined as right or wrong, and certain purposes as better than others

Rejects relativist support saying various beliefs just indicate how clearly a culture sees values

Just b/c scientists thought the Earth was flat and then round doesn’t mean both are right

Argues diversity between cultures may be just be the appearance, not reality

The Challenge of Cultural Relativism (James Rachels) (29)

How Different Cultures Have Different Moral Codes (29)

Ex: Eskimos – lived without outside influence for a long time

When first discovered, they seemed to have little regard for human life
They shared wives with visitors and neighbors, practiced infanticide, and left the old to die
Shows how conceptions of right and wrong differ greatly from culture to culture

Cultural Relativism (30)

Different societies have different morals
There is no objective standard / universal truth to judge a set of morals with
It is arrogant to try to judge other cultures

The Consequences of Taking Cultural Relativism Seriously (32)

We cannot say other’s morals are inferior – could not criticize slavery, anti-Semitism, etc.
We could decide right wrong based on our society’s culture – stops us from criticizing our own value
Idea of moral progress is false – changes can’t be for better or worse

Why There Is Less Disagreement Than It Seems (33)

The belief system may be the cause of what appear to be different values
For example, if a society thought it was wrong to eat cows because they thought after death your soul stayed in a cow’s body, then the disagreement would be over where the soul goes, not values about whether it is right or not to eat cows

How All Cultures Have Some Values in Common (34)

Moral rules which are necessary for continued existence will be common to all viable societies

Why Thoughtful People May Be Reluctant To Criticize Other Cultures (35)

Nervousness about interfering with the social customs of others
A desire to be tolerant of others
Do not wish to express contempt towards the society being criticized

What Can Be Learned From Cultural Relativism (36)

It is dangerous to assume our values are based on an absolute standard
Keep an open mind
Herodotus: If anyone were given a choice between which country’s morals they would choose, they would inevitably choose their own country’s morals over any others.

Wednesday: 10 Sept 04 – p.43-46 (EMP); p.165-166 (CS)

Ethical Pluralism: An Alternative to Objectivism and Relativism (Lawrence Lengbeyer) (43)

Many see objectivism and relativism as the only options
Many choose relativism because they think it is better to stifle judgment than be indefensibly arrogant

Objectivism seen as far-fetched, egotistical

Pluralism – there can be multiple correct answers to an ethical question

So an ethical question does have incorrect answers, but is not limited to a single correct answer
Supported by if you ask who was the best baseball player, there can be a number of different, correct answers with good support as well as many wrong answers

Our Values or Theirs? (CAPT Rick Rubel) (165)

Mission: sell major weapon systems to Saudi Arabia Ministry of Defense … Advantages to US include:

Save $500M (lower production costs)
Strengthen diplomatic, military, and economic ties with the ally
Provide more jobs

Capt James had little time to put his team together; found out in the airport the US lawyer was female

One of their best lawyers
In Saudi Arabia, women cannot conduct business, buy from a store, sit in the front seat, etc.

It is only 55min until the flight leaves

By bringing her, he may jeopardize the mission
By leaving her here, he may misspeak and cost the US

Capt respects the religious basis that founds these Saudi beliefs

Wonders whether he should bring her (equal opportunity, after all) or leave her and try to explain that there culture prohibits her from fulfilling her role

David Underhill – Week 4 – Religion and the Military

Monday 13 Sept 2004: P.107-112; 119-123

Religion and Military Ethics (107)

Morals are influenced by religion in those who believe
It is dangerous to think morals are sent down directly from God

This makes it possible for morals to be changed or suspended by God
Morality seems like it should remain constant

Some believe God’s intelligence and goodness ensure his actions are moral

Less threatening because then God does not set and cannot change morals

Others argue (on the basis of Abraham) that morality has nothing to do with religion
The Readings

Discuss the proper relationship between religious convictions and moral obligations
Cook: argues religious beliefs help form and explain the basis of morality
Rachels: argues morality defined by religion is paradoxical based on Greek scholars
Eberle: defends morality and religion by attacking Plato’s argument

Religion may not be the sole basis for actions by military personnel

Reality Check: The Human and Spiritual Needs of Soldiers (Chaplain Brinsfield) (109)

Soldiers are reluctant to discuss religion because it is perceived to be very personal
Strong observance of religion is perceived as being detrimental to the unit
Most religions worship a deity though some promote wisdom, etc.
Religion has become more diverse in the US: 45 to 2,000 specific religions in 60 years
Most important intangible assets: morale, élan, espirit de corps, the will to combat, and the will to win
Morale most influenced by leading by example and unit cohesion
Moral is an “expendable commodity”

Brits in WWII noticed soldiers peak ability was the first 90 days of combat
After that, it declines until the soldier is useless (around 140 days)
10-15% of casualties were psychiatric casualties

Four elements of support which help to cope with combat stress

Rightness of the war; unit cohesion from hard training, sports, and rewards; selfless leadership; and a desire for religious fortification before battle

Manchester on Okinawa (USMC): through prayer he realized he was there to fight for his comrades and a greater purpose than himself
A soldier’s ability to draw on his religion is an “undeniable component of readiness”

Does Morality Depend on Religion? (James Rachels) (119)

Connection between morality and religion

People often associate religion with morality and therefore call on priests to give ethical advice
A world without religion and a higher power lacks values according to Russel in A Free Man’s Worship

The Divine Command Theory (120)

Commanded by God means moral, and the reverse means immoral
Pros: solves the relativism / objectivism debate

Right and wrong is objective; those who don’t obey will be held accountable at death

Problems

Cannot apply to atheists
Main problem (Plato) – Is conduct right b/c the gods cmd it, or do the gods cmd it b/c it is right? … both problematic:

If it is right because god commands it, then it is arbitrary because god could have commanded the opposite – makes it impossible to label god as good
If god commands it because it is right, then there exists a standard of right and wrong, which means morals cannot be defined in term’s of god’s will
Many religious people believe the latter because it would be impious to do otherwise
Some theologians say the latter is impious as it doesn’t allow morals to be defined by god’s will

Some theologians reject this however (see below)

The Theory of Natural Law (122)

Says morals are decided by reason
Argues that god made natural law and us rational
This allows non-believers to use reason to determine morals just as easily as believers
Morality, like science, is autonomous of religion with its own way of being understood

Religious people believe the understandings of morality as being revealed by god
Allows non-believers and believers to participate in the same moral universe

Wednesday 15 Sept 2004: P.113-118, 125-129

Religion and Morality: Exploring the Connections (Cook) (113)

Historical Observations

Western religions honor Moses and God’s revelation to him
Many look to religion to know how to act morally
Many believe god grounds morals (without him, anything is allowed)
Many expect religious leaders to live up to higher standards
The Historical Problem: morals are arbitrary if determined by God and if they come from rational thought then it transcends rational morals

Religion and Rationality: Religious Synthesis (114)

Natural law says (see previous notes); allows believers and non-believers to participate in morality
Those who developed arguments about this synthesis and natural law have been prosecuted in their own time
Author believes religion will adopt forms of natural law for other principles as well so that non-believers can conform too

The Contribution of Religion to Morality (115)

Claims that religion must be the basis of morality threatens morality itself and is not well-grounded in religious thinking
Religion has an impact on the moral life of individuals through

The “sort of person” one is – religion tries to influence how children are raised and how people think about things like love
Reasons for being moral – gratitude to god
Religion and the interpretation of the circumstances of action – situations described in the Bible form foundations for actions now

Religion and morality have complex relationships
Religion profoundly impacts those who follow it
Natural law allows religion to share its morality with non-believers

A Philosophical Defense of Divine Command Theory (Eberle) (125)

Euthyphro Dilemma – some use it refute DCT; Eberle claims it only refutes a caricature of DCT

Does god command what is right arbitrarily or based on a universal standard he is passing down

Since god is perfect and loving he would only issue moral orders

As a result, DCT is founded because the orders are not arbitrary because god would never order you to do the wrong thing

Friday 17 Sept 2004: P.137-144 (CSME)

A Shipboard Request for Abortion (Rubel, Martini) (137)

Background: A CO can grant emergency if an immediate family member is terminally sick or has been killed; the CO can reject a valid request (particularly if it interferes with operations); transportation logistics may take some time to get the person home

Abortion: Supreme court has ruled it legal, but law does not allow military doctors to perform elective abortions
SecNav Shipboard Pregnancy Regs: will serve until 20^th week; must return by 4mo. after delivery; pilots grounded

The ship is nearing a foreign port visit in four days and a 3^rdclass petty officer requests emergency leave to go back to the US and have an abortion (requested via chit)

Chit approved by all below the CO who is deeply religious and opposed to abortion
The CO tells her that the request doesn’t quite meet the regs and asks why she wants the abortion
She says she is only 19 and wants to attend college and trying to raise a child alone would hurt her future

Altering the Uniform (Gunther) (139)

An Air Force officer (orthodox Jew) sues to be allowed to wear a yarmulke with his uniform
Supreme Court Justices reject his claims and forbid him to wear it, citing the fact the USAF made a decision not based on religion, but on uniformity and professionalism
Other justices dissented, saying his yarmulke had no impact on those around, and therefore he should be allowed to wear it

David Underhill - Week 5 – Consequential Reasoning

Monday 20 Sept 2004: P.137-148 (EMP)

Utilitarianism and the Greatest Good (137)

Utilitarianism – always act so that harm caused is minimized

Described by Hutchinson, Smith, and Hume but popularized by Jeremy Bentham

Bentham argued it should supplant any other moral theories

He felt laws should be evaluated with it (does it net more good than any alternative?)
He was thought to be radical; further this thought by creating a public University of London and having himself entombed there
Felt the concept of “rights” was illusory
Thought morality should be like a science (logical)
Created a kind of calculus with seven variables to determine which action was best for the whole

Required everyone affected must derive some benefit (prevents the formula from saying slavery was good, etc)

John Stuart Mill – Bentham’s godson; most influential English philosopher in the 19^th century; espoused this theory

The next article (by him) defends utilitarian reasoning from arguments from 19^th century critics
Argues God is the ultimate utilitarian
Tries to divorce utilitarian reasoning from its simplistic forms, saying actions must also be judged on the quality of their goodness
Addresses a dispute over the Principle of Utility

from Utilitarianism (1861) (John Stuart Mill) (141)

Utilitarianism says actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness
Pleasure must be measured in quality as well as quantity

Most do not wish lower themselves even to be satisfied
It is “better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied”
The young often have noble intentions which degrade because they are tender capacities

They change to inferior pleasures because they do not have the time or access to better ones
They still prefer the higher road, they just can’t take it

Pleasure and pain are heterogeneous and it is hard to decide whether a pleasure outweighs an accompanying pain
Greatest happiness principle – an existence exempt from pain and as rich as possible in pleasure; a standard for morality
The Golden Rule has the spirit of utilitarianism
Utilitarian Morality – 1) Laws and social arrangements should place happiness of every individual in harmony with the interest of the whole

2) Education and opinion should establish an association between happiness and good for the whole

Motivation does not affect whether something is good or not in utilitarianism morality
The multiplication of happiness is the object of virtue
Some believe utility makes men appear cold and unsympathetic

Not true because utilitarian are aware there are other qualities besides virtue
The best proof of good character is good actions

Utilitarianism is not a godless doctrine – if you believe god desires all his creatures to be happy, then god is a utilitarian
Withholding facts can be good (from a malicious person, or from someone deathly ill) – can prevent harm
The principle of utility must be good for weighing conflicting utilities and marking the better
Christianity cannot guide utilitarianism because there is not always time to read through Christian texts
Morality has been passed down and is being improved; will never be quite perfect
We require theories to help apply the principle of morality

Wednesday 22 Sept 2004: P.149-153 (EMP)

Utilitarianism (149)

Nonreligious ancestors of 20^th century secular humanists – optimistic
Utilitarians act not in the name of justice but for the greatest good

Only punish if it serves as a deterrent
The threat of punishment is important; it must be used because of human failing

Consequentialist Principle – teleological aspect à rightness determined by results (ends, not means, count)
Utility Principle – hedonic aspect à pleasure is the only good, pain is the only evil
Hedonic Calculus – quantitative score for an experience obtained by summing seven aspects of pleasure/painful experience

Intensity, Duration, Certainty, Nearness, Fruitfulness, Purity, Extent
Simplistic; called pig-philosophy because a happy pig > dissatisfied Socrates

Eudemonistic (Mill’s ver) – defines happiness by types of pleasures (high – intel, creativity, spirit; lower – eat, drink, sex, rest)

Lower pleasures more intensely gratifying but too much leads to pain
Higher pleasures are superior

Two types of of Utilitarianism (151)

Act-utilitarianism – an act is only right if it results in as much good as any other alternative
Rule-utilitarianism – act right only if it is required by a rule whose acceptance would lead to > utility for society

Debated whether this is valid because you can always do more good by going beyond the rules

Levels of rules – three levels of rules to guide actions

1 (top priority)) remainder rule – when no other rule applies, use your best judgment
2) conflict-resolving rules
3) utility-maximizing rules (must always be followed)

Negative responsibility – you are responsible for the actions you take and don’t take

Hiroshima: The First Use of Nuclear Weapons (1861) (Velasquez, Rostonkowski) (59) (CSME)

David Underhill – 27 Sept to 01 Oct 04 (Week 6) – P.159-181; Case Study p.3-6 – Kant

Kantian Ethics and the Basis of Duty (159)

Kant – German philosopher; his published works is generally very dense and hard to comprehend

His notes for students and public essays are much easier to grasp
Believed moral and mathematical reasoning were similar
“The starry heavens above, the Moral Law within.”
We can discover the secrets of nature which allows us to devise rules and most importantly allows us to choose to follow the rules
Explores this in Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals

Believed a revolutionary thought was needed to understand our morals from the external world so we could judge them

Believed human reason was not passive but active in developing our understanding of the world
Reason is used to determine how we react to desires, and so is associated with morality
Two desires – to fulfill duty or individual desires
Those who fulfill duty are moral

His hometown was completely leveled in WWII and then rebuilt by Soviets and used as their nuclear submarine HQ

Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals (165)

Actions must conform with duty to be considered moral
Even if actions conform with duty, an individual is not necessarily moral – depends on their motivation

Only moral if it is done “for the sake of duty”
An individual must choose to have a duty and then perform it
Formula of Autonomy – to be free, an individual must act on their own, not due to incentives

Three forms of the categorical imperative

Formula of Universal Law – an individual must act on universal obligations prior to personal desires

Individuals should not exempt themselves from rules which apply to all

Formula of Humanity as an End Itself – don’t use people for your own ends
Kingdom of Ends – act like everyone is a lawgiver and citizen in the moral community

Ex: lying is bad because it prevents other from having all the available information which they can use in order to determine, through Reason, what is right

Must not only not lie, but must tell the truth
You should not hurt a person in a burning car, but you must take action to help them

Inaction can be immoral too
Justifies military intervention for humanitarian reasons

The Reasonable ordering of desire and practical experience in our world results in duty (the laws of morality)

A Simplified Account of Kant’s Ethics (O’Neill) (177)

Author intends to simplify Kant by only presenting the Formula of the End and comparing it to utilitarianism
Each of our acts reflects a maxim (the principle on which one acts)
Whenever we act intentionally, it is due to a maxim we hold
Using someone as a means is an action that they could not consent to in principle

Done through manipulation (not sharing all the facts) or coercion

Kantians compare only the acts which have been proposed – don’t try to consider every possible act

If an act is required to fulfill duty, it is obligatory
As long as the act is just, it is moral – it does not have to be the best act possible

Limits of Kantian Ethics: Intentions and Results

Utilitarianism has an unlimited scope but its precision is limited by how much information is available
Smaller scope – only assesses intentional acts and can only apply to individuals as well as groups with policies/rules
Kant’s ethics also focuses on maxims rather than results

Respect for Life

Kant: people are not ends and so their lives have a high value
This does not mean they will preserve it though – Kant acts can be just and reasonable while not providing the best healthcare … also, individuals may take pains in order to not use others, making society an unhappy place
Utilitarianism does not value human life specifically; it needs it, but allows for it to be lost for the greater good

Leave No One Behind (Capt Rubel) (3)

CDR Davis is in charge of a helo rescue squadron
A man goes overboard in almost zero visibility, 45kt winds, and 25ft swells
The rescue helo is sent but is taken down
Should CDR Davis send a second helo or cut losses?

David Underhill – Week 7 – Character and Virtue: Aristotle

Monday and Wednesday: 03 Oct to 05 Oct 04 (Week 7) – P.183-200

Aristotle and the Ethics of Virtue (183)

Kant and Mill were both concerned about understanding the foundations of morality
Aristotle could a theory that could be mechanically applied
Kant’s demands are so stiff that even he questions if any have lived up to them
Eudaimonia is good for a man – translates loosely to happiness or human flourishing à a life of excellence
Courage is described as the mean between the vices of cowardice (deficiency) and recklessness (excess)

The Moral Virtues (187)

Definition of Human Life

1) Belongs to the rational part of man – active (exercising reason) or passive (following reason)
2) Expression in Actions

Excellence – 1) produces a good state and 2) enable one to perform one’s function well

Virtue in one makes one good and enables him to perform well
Achieved through a mean – too much or little destroy perfection

Goodness is characterized by feeling the right amount at the right time on the right occasion with the right motive
Extreme Rules – hard to hit the bullseye so…

Keep away from the worse extreme – one is always more dangerous
Note the errors one is most likely to make
Always guard against pleasure and pleasant things

Habit and Virtue (Aristotle) (193)

Types of Virtue: Virtue of thought or of character
Character and Virtue comes out of habit

Natural conditions cannot be changed by habit (rocks always roll downhill)
Natural capacities are not from habit
Legislators concentrate on habit – citizens are made good through habituation
Virtue and vice are from good and bad acts

Right Sort of Habituation

Actions should express correct reason
Habits must avoid excess and deficiency
Pleasure and pain are important to habits
Virtue is concerned with pleasure and pain

Pleasure causes us to act, pain causes us to abstain
Virtues are concerned with feelings and actions and these all imply pleasure or pain
Corrective treatment uses pleasure and pain
The soul is related to what makes it better or worse
3 Objs of choice – fine, expedient, pleasant; 3 Objs of avoidance – shameful, harmful, painful

A good person is correct

Inquiries must be about pleasure because all feel it from birth and it is important for our actions
It is harder to fight pleasure than emotion

How one can become good without being good already

Conformity vs. Understanding

It is possible to produce something correct randomly so one must learn to understand and then perform well

Crafts vs. Virtues … Craft is a product; A craft requires only knowledge

Human must be in the right state to be virtuous – 1) must know his act is virtuous; 2) must decide on them for them; 3) must do them from a firm position

Virtue requires habit, not just theory

Courage (Aristotle) (197)

Courage – concerned with feelings of fear / confidence (particularly death in battle) (6)

Battle is the greatest and most noble danger
He who is fearless in face of a noble death is brave

Not someone who is confident before being flogged, etc

7 … There are fears beyond human strength – all fear them

Brave men will be virtuous and face even the things they fear – whether they are beyond human str or not
A man who exceeds in fear is a coward

8 … Five kinds of courage improperly so called … five kinds of courage:

1) Courage of the citizen soldier (true courage); 2) experience with regard to particular facts; 3) Passion; 4) sanguine people (not really brave – just confident); 5) people ignorant of danger (only appear brave)

Friday – 07 Oct 04 (Week 7, cont.) – P.201-207

Friendship (Aristotle) (201)

Bk 8, Ch1 – “two going together” are better than one; friendship is noble
Bk 8, Ch2 – Motives for love: 1)

Do not love lifeless things because 1) they cannot return affection; 2) we do not wish their good
Some friends are made out of utility – not for pleasures sake and dissolves when utility declines/varies
Perfect friendship is the friendship of people who are good and alike in virtue and wish each other well

Lasts as long as their goodness
Naturally permanent
Rare because people like this are rare

Bk 8, Ch4 – Friendships between parent/child, etc are unequal and therefore a different kind of friendship
Bk 9, Ch3 – It is not unreasonable to break friendships if the friend changes

Do not treat past friends as enemies – show some consideration

The Warriors: Reflections on Men in Battle (205) (J. Glenn Gray)

Comrades have lived through hard and dangerous experiences which make them devoted to each other for life
Camaraderie is stronger than friendship and rarely can anything stronger be attained
Essential difference is the suppression of self in comradeship
Friends can endure war’s horror without losing zest for life
A lost friend’s companionship is not replaceable

David Underhill – 11 Oct 04 (Week 8) – P.195-198 (CSME) – Loyalty vs. Mission

EE Cheating Scandal (CBS News) (195)

Some mids got the EE test the night before the exam
They spread it to 80% of those taking the test
Afterwards, 24 were eventually expelled for cheating (some not until a year later)
Huge, life-altering changes

no longer in the naval service
honor compromised
much less significant careers on the whole